Which Governance Model for Moroccan Universities?

The issue of the university’s models of governance is of cardinal importance and provokes great controversy. Academic literature has referred to different models or classifications of university governance. In the case of Morocco, a few articles address the issue of governance models in Moroccan universities. Here, we aimed to highlight the governance model currently adopted by Moroccan universities, adopting a descriptive and analytical approach, through the reading and analysis of the legislative texts and official reports that govern higher education in Morocco. We found that the governance of higher education evolved with Law 01.00 of the year 2000, from a model of governance controlled by the State to a model of governance supervised by the State. As a result, the autonomy of universities has been strengthened and stakeholder involvement has been broadened. It is a mixed model that brings together, with different degrees, characteristics of the “academic” model, the “political” model, the “bureaucratic” model, and the “stakeholder model” to some extent. However, given the multiple challenges and pressures faced by Moroccan universities such as employability and funding problems, we believe that they must change the paradigm to adopt a governance model that combines respect for academic values with the contribution to the socio-economic development of the nation, a more flexible model, more inclusive, more participatory and more entrepreneurial, which encourages self-employment, having a global vision and a regional vocation, oriented towards local development. This research is one of the first attempts at understanding the Moroccan university governance models. It enriches the theoretical literature on the crisis of Moroccan higher education, mainly the issue of governance models, and opens the way to new studies that aim to improve the governance and the quality of higher education.


Introduction
Changes in the socioeconomic environment of the university are leading to a change in its mission and consequently the need to change its governance model. Throughout history, three main types of universities have been characterized as follows: the first generation (or the medieval university), the second generation (or the Humboldtian university), and the third generation (or the so-called entrepreneurial university). The main difference between these types of universities is how they perceive knowledge and its role in society (Kliewe et al., 2019).
Moreover, modes of governance are formed based on the interaction of three major forces: the State, the faculty, and the market. Based on the interactions of these forces, a basic typology of higher education governance regimes has been developed: bureaucratic, collegial, stakeholder and entrepreneurial.
Traditionally, in European countries, the study of university governance has been conducted based on three main visions or paradigms: the model of the Napoleonic tradition, strongly guided by state action; the Humboldtian model, influenced by academic professionals; and the Anglo-Saxon model, strongly guided by the logic of a competitive market. Universities in the first model are subject to strong and formal administrative control, indicating limited organizational independence and strong dependence on political power. Teachers are generally public servants, deprived of real strategic leadership capacity (Paradeise et al., 2009). On the other hand, universities in the second model of governance are distinguished by Humboldtian traditions, which are distinguished by the unity between teaching and research and are strongly oriented by the work and standards of the university community. Finally, in the market-oriented model, the university government acquires an executive and administrative role, and the state retains a role as the driving force of the environment. University leaders often have strong management and organizational skills and strong internal leadership.
The changing socioeconomic environment has led to many changes that challenge traditional models of university governance, characterized by the hegemony of an "academic oligarchy," in favor of new governance models where responsibilities and decision-making powers are redistributed between external and internal actors of the university or are monopolized by "managers" in the image of private companies. Thus, a debate has long since broken out between "managerialism", strongly influenced by the principles of New Public Management (NPM), which defends a "rationalization" of public spending and advocates "corporate governance", and the "academic" stream, which defends "academic autonomy" and the specificities of the university-and this debate is, in a way, the match of the century.
This "struggle" that tests the balance of power between "faculty" and "managers" representing the administration of the university has been won to a large extent by the latter in most countries and continues to expand their "conquest" of new terrain with changes in the socioeconomic environment that have led to major transformations in the university's essence and mission.
Every transformation in the university's mission requires a paradigm shift to implement more appropriate governance models.
In Morocco, the university governance model has not received enough study, which is why we decided to make it the focus of this article. The Moroccan university governance model brings together characteristics inherited from the French model, dominated by bureaucracy and the State, with other characteristics of governance models in the Arab world, such as the supremacy of the political over the academic dimension.
The governance model of Moroccan universities has evolved with Law 01.00 of the year 2000 through the strengthening of university autonomy and the involvement of stakeholders. However, this autonomy remains limited because universities depend almost entirely on funding from the State. Also, the involvement of stakeholders, especially representatives of economic sector, remains formal only because of their repetitive absenteeism.
However, given the multiple challenges and pressures that Moroccan universities face, such as employability and funding problems, we believe that they must change the paradigm to adopt a governance model that combines respect for academic values with contributions to the nation's socioeconomic development: a more flexible model that is more inclusive, more participatory, and more entrepreneurial, one that encourages self-employment and possesses both a global vision and a regional vocation oriented towards local development.

Problem and Research Question
Since the end of the last century, numerous analyses have been made of university governance models to find the most effective formula for adapting higher education institutions to the new requirements of the international environment. Indeed, it is not easy to identify the governance model of a given university, which may be a mixture of several models. In general, the choice of a model depends on several factors, such as the history and size of the university, the culture of the nation, the nature of the model of education, and the nature of the political and economic system. Thus, the model of university governance is the product of numerous complicated elements and is formed as a result of a socioeconomic, cultural, and historical process. Given the convergence processes, national higher education institutions are increasingly subject to competing visions of how university systems and higher education institutions should be governed (Dobbins et al., 2011).
A commonly accepted assumption in the literature is used as a starting point: successful academic organizations are those that can modify their governance models to adapt to the changing demands of their environment (Brunner, 2010). Thus, it is important to know whether Moroccan universities have adapted their governance model in the face of changes in their socioeconomic environment.
In this article, we will try to answer the following question: What is the governance model currently adopted by Moroccan universities?

Study Purpose
In this article, we will first try to shed light on the main models of university governance in the world, then understand the nature of higher education in Morocco and the governance model currently adopted by Moroccan universities.

The Importance of the Subject
In a context characterized by the internationalization of higher education, its "digitization", and its massification, the choice of the university's governance model is of cardinal importance: it determines to a large extent the university's performance and consequently its visibility and international ranking. Adopting a governance approach is an important decision in a given time and context for an institution or university system (World Bank, 2012).

Method
To address the main question of this article, we will adopt a descriptive and analytical approach through the reading and analysis of the legislative texts and official reports that govern higher education in Morocco.
We will also try to position Moroccan universities in their historical and cultural context with an analysis of the influence of Arab and French university models on the Moroccan model.

Literature Review
University governance has become increasingly complex and contested (Carnegie & Tuck, 2010). Over the past four decades, higher education institutions have faced increasing complexity related to governance (Berdahl, 1991;Birnbaum, 1988;Kezar, 2000;Leslie & Fretwell, 1996, as cited in Kezar & Eckel, 2004). Indeed, in recent times there has been a considerable change in governance in general, and more particularly at the university level (Kezar and Eckel, 2004), due to a series of global historical processes such as massification, growth, globalization, commercialization, public sector reforms and the emergence of the knowledge economy and society (Findikli, 2017). These developments have made governance arrangements and decision-making processes in higher education more complex (Findikli ,2017), which has led to the proliferation of university governance models.
There are many models of university governance. They vary depending on the national context, type of institution, historical heritage, and other cultural, political, and economic factors. There is no single model or "one-size-fits-all" approach to university governance. It is also clear that choosing a governance model for a given institution must be a carefully considered decision (World Bank, 2012).
One of the most influential typologies of university models comes from the Clark framework, established in 1983 and adjusted in 1998. Clark was among the first to establish a typology of governance systems. Positioning the university within the borders of a triangle whose sides consisted of dimensions determining its characteristics allows the influence of each dimension to be highlighted. Depending on the configuration of the higher education system and, in particular, the university, the strength of state authority, market forces, and academic oligarchy were variables that paved the way for different modes of cooperation in higher education (Hé nard & Mitterle, 2010). Clark (1983) thus distinguished between a model of state control, a Humboldtian model of academic autonomy, and an Anglo-American model oriented towards the market (Dobbins et al., 2011).
These three forces were reduced to two throught the reduction of Van Vught. Generally speaking, from the point of view of government policy on higher education, two models can be distinguished: the model of State control and the model of State supervision (Hé nard & Mitterle, 2010).
Models of university governance can be identified based on predominant strength (World Bank, 2012, pp. 8-10). Dobbins et al. (2011) considered three models: the first gives full authority to the government, the second gives total autonomy to the higher education institution, and the third is based on continuous adaptation and adjustment to market forces.
The State-centered model is too conservative in terms of regulation. In this model, the government is responsible for coordinating different aspects of higher education, as higher education institutions (HEIs) are considered public institutions managed by the political system (Habchi, 2018). The self-rule model defines universities as organizations serving the government's objectives. In this model, universities define their own research goals and objectives that carry their own intrinsic values independently of national and social interests (Olsen 2007, as cited in Habchi, 2018). The market-based model considers universities to be effective because of good relationships with market forces. Adapted to the liberal free-market system, universities function as financial corporations that compete to attract more students and financial resources (Habchi, 2018).
Trakman (2008) identified five key governance models at the university board level: (a) academic governance; (b) corporate governance; (c) trustee governance; (d) stakeholder governance; and (e) amalgamation of governance models. His analysis showed that each governance model serves different objectives in different contexts and at different times.
There are several conceptual models of governance in HEIs, such as college, bureaucratic, political, organized anarchy, professional, service university, business university, and entrepreneurship university (Bouri & Maalouf, 2018). Several researchers have developed more models, such as John Fielden (2008), Boer et al. (2007), and Hé nard and Mitterle (2010). In the case of Morocco, a few articles address the issue of governance in universities. To help fill this gap, we decided to study the issue of governance models in Moroccan universities, which plays a leading role in their success and prosperity.

Higher Education in Morocco
Morocco is a country of great cultural diversity that has been influenced by many cultures, ethnicities, and religions throughout its rich history. Just 15 km south of Europe across the strait of Gibraltar, it occupies a strategic geographical position in North Africa in the western Arab-Muslim world.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The new Moroccan constitution was adopted in 2011 in the context of the "Arab Spring"; it includes a whole section dedicated to good governance.
Morocco is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, al-Qarawīyīn. Indeed, Qarawīyīn Mosque is the center of the university, founded in 859 A.D.; several of its schools (madrasas) are grouped around it (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
The models of governance implemented within universities often reflect, both directly and indirectly, the models of governance adopted by the State and, more recently, by companies (Rowlands, 2017). Therefore, we thought it useful to shed some light on Morocco and its educational and political systems. Understanding the model of the Moroccan university depends largely on understanding the history of universities in Morocco. The Moroccan model lies at the intersection of the Arab university model with the French model; thus, we can say that the Moroccan model is the result of the interaction between the Arab model and the French model. The model of governance of Moroccan universities is inspired by the French model, characterized by Napoleonic traditions (i.e., a strong hegemony of the State) and the influence of existing university models in the Arab world. Thus, we will try to shed light on the main features of these two models.

Influence of the University Governance Model in Arab Countries
The two ideas most often invoked in the literature on Arab universities are that these universities lack autonomy and that academic freedom is absent (El Amine, 2016). The governance profile of Arab universities is as follows (El Amine, 2016): The dependence of universities, the hegemony of the central authorities overall administrative and financial specializations, thus emptying from its content the principle of university autonomy (Abiaba, 2011, as cited in EL Amine, 2016), the power and bureaucracy of the central system managed by the Ministry of Higher Education (Krieger, as cited in EL Amine, 2016); Centralization and low participation of teachers in decision-making (Mohammad, as cited in el Amine, 2016); The rigidity of organizational structures that have been in place for decades (Ikhazim, 2003;Kayyal, 2012; as cited in El Amine, 2016); and Lack of academic freedom.
The most dominant models of HEIs in the Arab region are the French and American models (Husni, 2018, p. 38).
Previous studies on Arab HEIs indicate several key deficiencies in governance, including low levels of autonomy and transparency, sluggish government-run bureaucracies, lack of accountability of institutional actors towards boards of directors or stakeholders as well as state authorities, and political influence in the selection of senior HEI executives (Bouri & Maalouf, 2018).
However, the governance of Arab public HEIs has shifted from a model of State control to a model of State supervision (Bouri & Maalouf, 2018).
Indeed, the purpose of the university in many Arab countries has become that of service to the political regime. Universities have evolved into sociopolitical tools in the service of government and defenders of its ideology (Habchi, 2018). Thus, over time, unqualified people come to lead the educational system, diminishing the quality of education despite an increase in the number of quality assurance commissions and bodies (Habchi, 2018).

The Influence of the French Model
The Moroccan model is a "copy" of the French model and thus suffers from the same problems as the French system. To understand the Moroccan model of higher education, it is useful to make a brief examination of the French model which constitutes its reference, without pretending to conduct an exhaustive analysis.
The French system was more interested in Grandes Ecoles to the detriment of the University (Cervel, 2018).
This opposition between these two components has stuck the French university system which has demonstrated its limits in international rankings.
According to Cervel (2018), the French system comprises four main elements: the existence of a powerful historical system of "Grandes Ecoles", which has generated a special system of elite selection; the existence of a specific research system set up around large national institutions; the central role of the State, with different national administrations having different visions, focusing on higher education and research, dominated by the administration of the Ministry of National Education and/or the Ministry of Higher Education and Research; and the existence of bodies of state officials of higher education and research on the one hand, and bodies of state officials of research on the other, each with different statuses and obligations of service.
The Moroccan higher education system has inherited these four characteristics. The State created the "Grandes Ecoles" system mainly to ensure the recruitment of its senior technical officials. However, the French model is currently being called into question, and we are wondering about its ability to face the challenges of tomorrow, especially with the university's new mission of cultivating a relationship with the economy based on innovation and cultivating a relationship with society based on social and societal responsibility.
Morocco inherited this French model with its advantages and disadvantages. Indeed, the Moroccan university can be considered an "annex" of the French university; because of the historical relationship between France and Morocco, its former colony, almost all the major reforms that take place in France find their echo in Morocco. A glaring illustration is the adoption of the French language in education and its reinforcement in primary and secondary education against the worldwide trend of the massive and growing use of English as an international language. This, of course, has consequences for the Moroccan university, the national economy, and their competitiveness.
The characteristics of public higher education in Morocco can be summarized as follows: a) Morocco provides free access to higher education. b) Moroccan public higher education comprises two essential components with very different characteristics. The first category includes institutions with regulated access; students are admitted following a strict selection process, limited to an elite of students who generally have good grades at the baccalaureate level. This category represents only 12.4% of the student population (CSEFRS, 2018, p 49). These institutions are well equipped and have significant resources, reduced enrolment classes and an acceptable teaching supervision rate (in 2016, 17 students for each professor; CSEFRS, 2020, p. 17). These institutions are intended to integrate professionalism and excellence into Moroccan universities (CSEFRS, 2020, p. 32).
The second category consists of open-access institutions. They do not make any selection for the admission of undergraduate's students. These institutions are obligated, by law, to admit every student who has obtained a baccalaureate degree (i.e., passing certificate at the end of high school). This category includes almost 87.6% of the total number of students (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 49). These institutions face major challenges: limited resources and very high staff. The mentoring rate was 83 students for each teacher in 2016 (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 49), which has implications for the quality of training and research. The high number of students in the lecture halls can negatively affect the quality of teaching; likewise, the high number of class sessions for which teachers are responsible can negatively affect their research efforts. This coexistence of two very different systems is an essential feature of Moroccan higher education. This dual system that runs at two very different speeds, despite certain advantages, is the cause of great dysfunctions that Moroccan higher education is experiencing and challenges the principle of equality between citizens. Indeed, regulated access remains better endowed with public appropriations compared with open access (CSEFRS, 2020, p. 32).
The regulated system receives the best students based on their baccalaureate grades and the passage required by a competition. This selection allows the system to extract the best and to drive the majority of the remaining students into the Open Access System. This horizontal selection results in a dichotomy between "the best" and "the worst". The baccalaureate grade also determines the student's path through university studies (CSEFRS, 2018, p.18).
The Open System is characterized by a certain laxity, a high rate of absenteeism, and a high rate of loss, which the business sector perceives as inadequate for the labor market. Encumbered by the massification of the student population and stigmatized by a negative societal image, open-access system training crystallizes the problem of poor quality (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 19).
The divide created by this dichotomy between "open-access" and "regulated access", chosen and reinforced, clearly jeopardizes the project of a unified and diversified university system that is fair and of the quality promoted by the Strategic Vision (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 19). c) Moroccan higher education is distinguished by the existence of several schools that do not belong to universities or the Ministry of National Education. However, in terms of weight, the university system has monopolized the lion's share with 78% in 2016 and 2017 (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 10). d) An essential feature is the existence of research centers that do not belong to universities. Universities are thus caught between these two major groups: the "Grandes Ecoles" and the research centers.

The Governance Model of Moroccan Universities
The Moroccan model straddles the Arab university model and the French model, as discussed above. Although Moroccan universities are similar to those in other Arab countries, however, there are major differences between them. In Morocco, we find most of the characteristics of the universities described above. Although universities have a formal "autonomy", they are placed under State supervision. However, unlike some Arab countries, we believe that the academic body has an important authority in university governance.
The Moroccan Code of Good Governance Practices defines governance as "the full range of relationships between management and corporate governance bodies and shareholders, on the one hand, and other stakeholders, intending to create value for society." (World Bank, 2012, p. 37). The code reflects all the institutional, legal, and economic advances that have affected the environment in which Moroccan companies in general and public institutions in particular operate to provide a modern governance framework.
The Code has five dimensions that are considered as pillars of good governance practices for companies and public institutions: transparency, accountability, inclusion, the involvement of stakeholders, and the assignment of roles to State institutions and within institutions to governing bodies. Public universities in Morocco adhere to this code (World Bank, 2012, p. 37).

Legal Aspect
In Morocco, university governance has evolved significantly from the first law on the organization of higher education in 1975 to the present day (Ayad et al., 2020) .

Governance in the law of 01.00
Currently, Moroccan higher education is organized by law 01.00 promulgated in 2000. However, adoption of a new law for higher education has been planned following the 2019 adoption of Framework Law 51.17 on the system of education, training, and scientific research.
According to Article 1 of Law 01.00, higher education "is the responsibility of the State, which ensures its planning, organization, development, regulation, and orientation according to the economic, social and cultural needs of the nation, which defines its national policy". Thus, the state plays a key role in universities.
At the same time, Law 01.00 has strengthened the principle of decentralization. Universities are thus invested with new skills. According to Law 01.00, the following is still applicable: Universities are public institutions with legal personality, administrative, and financial autonomy and are placed under the supervision of the State (Article 4).
They enjoy educational, scientific, and cultural autonomy (Article 5).
They shall be administered by a University Council, the highest decision-making body, chaired by the President of the University; it shall consist of ex officio members, elected members, and designated members. The number varies, depending on the size of the universities and the number of academic institutions, from 50 to 60 members.
University presidents serve four-year terms. They are chosen, after an open call for applications, from among the candidates, who customarily present a development project for the university. Such applications and projects are examined by a committee designated by the governmental supervisory authority and which submit to the latter three applications which shall follow the procedure in force for appointment to higher posts (Article 15). The president is assisted by two vice-presidents and one secretary-general (Article 16).
Faculties, schools, and institutes are headed for four years by deans for faculties and principals for schools and institutes, chosen after an open call for applications, among the professors of higher education who present a development project of the university concerned. These applications and projects are examined and classified by a committee designated for this purpose by the governmental supervisory authority, on a proposal from the President of the University, then submitted to the Council of the University for consideration, which submits three applications to the said Authority which will follow the applicable procedure for appointment to higher posts (Article 20).
Since the adoption of Law 01-00 on the organization of higher education in 2000, the public university has not yet adopted an administrative organization chart which would enable it to define precisely the services, posts and occupations to achieve effective management (CSEFRS, 2018). Currently, the universities adopt an informal organization chart composed of three poles: training, research and cooperation; HRM; and financial management.
Efforts have been made in Morocco to strengthen the governance of HEIs, especially to strengthen the autonomy of the university and the presence of external members in the management bodies. This can be referred to as "stakeholder governance". In reality, however, the Management Board operates with little participation from representatives of local authorities, companies, and social partners. Their endemic absence frees the field to the exclusive benefit of the different components internal to the university (CSEFRS, 2014, p. 51).
After shedding light on the legal aspect, we will highlight the governance model of Moroccan universities. For this, we will adopt a descriptive approach to describe the reality of Moroccan universities.

The Moroccan University Governance Model: A Descriptive Approach
In addition to the stakeholder governance model established by Law 01.00, as explained in the previous paragraph, we can identify other models of governance in Moroccan universities. Baldridge (1971) highlighted some features of colleges and universities that correspond to Weber's discussion of the nature of the bureaucracy.

Bureaucratic Governance
First, the university is a complex state-accredited organization. Second, the university has a formal hierarchy. Third, there are formal communication channels that must be respected. Fourth, there are well-defined bureaucratic authority relationships. Fifth, some formal policies and rules maintain the university's cohesion and govern much of its work. Finally, there are bureaucratic elements in the university's "people handling" activities: record keeping, registration, graduation requirements, and a thousand other routine daily activities designed to help the modern university manage its masses of students (Baldridge 1971).
We find in the reality of the Moroccan university all or most of these characteristics of the bureaucracy. Even if the Moroccan public universities have a certain autonomy, they are public administrations under the supervision of the State and depend on the financing of the State at the rate of 70 to 97% (CSEFRS, 2018). Administrators and teachers are state officials. Hence, these are features of "bureaucratic governance".

Academic Governance
Professors hold fairly significant weight in the governance of the university through their representative in the governance bodies of the university. Indeed, it can be said that many of the professors prefer the "ivory tower" model for the Moroccan university and wish to remain isolated from the surrounding socioeconomic environment, to protect themselves, enjoy the benefits of this scientific "elitism", and resist any change in the university. Virtually, all the presidents of Moroccan universities are university professors, although Law 01.00 opens the door for other people to hold this position even if they are not university professors. However, the law stipulates that candidates for the post of dean of faculty or principals of school or institute must be professors. This gives us an idea of the weight of faculty in the Moroccan university system and reflects, to some extent, the qualities of the "academic oligarchy" model.

Political Governance
Far from the organizational chart, which only traces formal relations, if we examine closely how the decision is taken in reality, we will discover that this is a complex process that reflects the informal relationships and the power relationships of the different stakeholders who each want to defend their interests, their claims, their ideology, their visions and their philosophy using the different weapons at their disposal. The decision is the result of lengthy "negotiations".
Thus, the appointment of university officials, deans of faculties, and directors of Institutes depends largely on the authority of the Minister of National Education, Vocational Training, of Higher Education and Scientific Research and Government Council. Certainly, there has been a positive development in the appointment of university officials in Law 01.00 compared with the previous 1975 law, but the Government still has the final word in the final choice of officials, through the commission responsible for selecting the candidates, then through the choice of the Minister of National Education, and finally through the approval of the Government Council. The choices made by the commission and the minister can be influenced by the logic of allegiance and patronage. This reflects some qualities of "political governance".
Thus, according to this descriptive approach, the governance of Moroccan universities brings together aspects of bureaucratic, academic, and political governance.

Reflections on the Governance Model for Future Moroccan Universities
As we have pointed out above, the Moroccan higher education system, especially the open-access component, confronts multiple dysfunctions such as the high rate of loss and the problem of inadequacy in the labor market, of massification (CSEFRS, 2018, p. 19). Many students and parents now describe the Moroccan university as a factory for the unemployed, given the unemployment rate that grows with level of qualification, rising from 3.1% among those with no diploma to 15.7% for those with a diploma and 12.4% among those with an average diploma to 21.6% for those with a higher degree and 23.6% for those with a university degree (HCP, 2019).
These alarming figures challenge the current model of governance of our universities, which brings together features of bureaucratic governance and academic oligarchy-which desires to be an "ivory tower" far from the problems of society-and political governance, the political factor in which plays an important role in appointment of university officials.
To address these challenges, Moroccan universities are asked to consider a more collaborative, interactive, participatory, open, and proactive governance model. Before 2000, entrepreneurial training was almost absent in university curricula. Faced with this alarming situation, we are beginning to hear voices calling for the reform of the university and the strengthening of the relationship between the university and its socioeconomic environment. Thus, the Moroccan legislator intervened to try to remedy this chronic problem from which the Moroccan university suffers. Thus, Law 01.00 allowed the involvement of external stakeholders, which aimed to get Moroccan universities out of their "ivory towers" and to link the university with its economic and social environment.
Indeed, Law 01.00 has given a dynamic to the entrepreneurial vision in the educational curriculum and linked the university with its economic environment. For example, incubators and university-business interfaces have been set up to disseminate the entrepreneurial spirit and facilitate the creation of businesses and the support of new students and entrepreneurs. However, these experiences remain limited and are not generalized to all faculties, colleges, and institutes. These training courses are often theoretical, especially with the low involvement of companies in entrepreneurship training. Despite these constraints, Morocco should capitalize on these experiences for their impact on the Moroccan economy.
The Act has also authorized universities to provide services for a fee by way of an agreement, to set up incubators for innovative enterprises, to exploit patents and licenses and to market the products of their activities.
To strengthen their entrepreneurial activities, universities may engage in the following: • Acquire shareholdings in public and private undertakings, provided that such shareholdings are not less than 20% of the share capital of such undertakings;

•
Set up subsidiary companies, provided that the purpose of such companies is to produce, exploit and market goods or services in the economic, scientific, technological, and cultural fields and that universities hold at least 50% of the share capital of these subsidiaries (Article 7 of Law 01.00). Indeed, the model of the Moroccan university that predominated for decades has been oriented towards the training of public administration executives and research, although the latter has remained relatively marginal compared to training (CSEFRS, 2019, p. 26). Now, with the upheavals in the economic world, the digital revolution, the knowledge economy, and the emergence of artificial intelligence, it is time to redefine the missions of Moroccan universities to serve the country's socioeconomic needs. Currently, we are talking more about the third mission of the university which consists of fulfilling the socioeconomic needs of the nation, next to the two classical missions: teaching and research.
Moroccan universities are required to promote the entrepreneurial culture to stimulate the creation of businesses and consequently the creation of wealth in the national economy. To this end, the training of students in entrepreneurship, through what is called student entrepreneurship, plays a key role.
Today, we are mainly talking about the third mission of universities, which has emerged in recent decades and which directs them towards the "entrepreneurial model". In this sense, the Moroccan university should encourage the creation, within it, of structures likely to help student researchers to realize the business creation projects they are conducting (CSEFRS, 2019, p. 27). Moreover, resource development, other than state subsidies, would give universities the foundation they need to develop their entrepreneurial activities and the use of external loans provided for in Law 01-00 among university funding sources (CSEFRS, 2019, p. 43).
In this context, the National Status of the Student Entrepreneur has been implemented, and support structures have been set up (co-working spaces, incubators, accelerators, innovation cities, etc.) to introduce students and graduates to entrepreneurship as an alternative to salaried employment.

University: vector of regional development
Making the university a regional development pole is a necessity for Morocco, especially since it is committed to the policy of advanced regionalization, a strategic project that will determine Morocco's future, in which the challenges of democracy and sustainable development are intertwined. Advanced regionalization, as a model of territorial governance, aims to strengthen the participation of the local population in the decision-making process through an administrative division of 12 balanced and complementary regional spaces. The "advanced regionalization" is thus an instrument of development and a real vector for territorializing public policies in line with the entrepreneurial university.
The challenge for Morocco is to create an integrated university pole in regions that do not have it and to conclude a strategic region-university partnership to (a) anchor the university in its regional environment, (b) promote the knowledge economy and research and development, and (c) contribute to the supervision of studies and research connected to the regional development strategy, particularly in terms of wealth production and job promotion (CES, 2016).

Finding
The governance model of Moroccan universities is a mixed model that brings together to some extent and to different degrees, characteristics of the "academic" model, the "political" model, the "bureaucratic" model, and the "stakeholder model". The Moroccan model is still far from the model of "corporate governance" of the entrepreneurial model but is changing and moving in that direction.
If a comparison can be made between the governance model in the 1975 Law and the Law 01.00 of 2000, it can be said that it has gone from a state-controlled governance model to a state-supervised governance model, which encourages the involvement of different stakeholders and the logic of shared governance.

Discussion
As we have highlighted above, the Moroccan governance model is mixed and brings together characteristics of academic, bureaucratic, political, and stakeholder governance. The fact that the governance model of Moroccan universities is mixed can be explained by two important factors: (a) the influence of the Moroccan university system, especially on the part of the French and Arab system, and (b) the current evolution of the Moroccan university system. The governance model of Moroccan universities is based on the French model, characterized by Napoleonic traditions: that is, a strong hegemony of the State and the influence of the existing university models in the Arab world which are characterized by a certain rigidity of structures and the domination of political governance. Thus, the French system has certainly contributed to the emergence of the bureaucratic and academic model and has contributed to forging a model in which the State has a primary role. The "political model" is omnipresent throughout the Arab world today. But, in our opinion, Morocco is a country that confers a relatively high degree of administrative autonomy on its universities compared to the countries of the region. Moreover, the modern university system in Morocco is not yet mature. It is evolving. Thus, universities try to adopt more modern approaches that are inspired by new modes of governance such as stakeholder involvement and the entrepreneurial university model. As a result, the faculty has seen its central place in university governance diminish to the benefit of new players in the economic world and civil society, but it still retains significant weight in the university structure.
However, in reality, this "excessive" involvement of external stakeholders remains purely formal, with chronic absenteeism from representatives of the economic and social sectors and local authorities. The core of the university thus remains controlled by the internal parts of the university, namely academics-civil servants with little experience and expertise in the field of management. This enables the university to block out and isolate its socioeconomic environment and prevents it from engaging in collaborative relationships with government and business.
However, there is a growing awareness of the importance, usefulness, and even necessity of introducing reforms on the model of university governance towards a mode close to the logic of "corporate governance" and the entrepreneurial model for its positive effects on the integration of young graduates into the professional world, on the socioeconomic environment, on innovation and entrepreneurship and, consequently, on the national economy. This change comes as a result of the multiple dysfunctions of the traditional model of university governance and the growing pressures that come from massification and the problem of funding.
The choice of model depends on several historical, cultural, and socioeconomic factors. But it can be said that there is neither an optimal "one best model" nor a standard "one size fits all". It is up to each university, based on its conditions, its means and its potential, to seek the model that suits it. However, whatever model is selected, it is essential to establish trust and cooperation between the different actors of the university: managers, academic staff, students, and economic and social partners.
For Morocco, all universities have the same structure and organization. Perhaps it is time to review this standardization. It is more beneficial to differentiate and allow the university some freedom to choose its governance model so that it considers regional, cultural and economic specificity and thus has a choice of several forms of university governance.
We believe that the model that would suit Moroccan universities should not allow its internal components to remain closed, thus forming an academic oligarchy or a form of the "ivory tower", as is currently the case in Morocco. Neither should it be dominated by the neoliberal values of the market to the detriment of academic values, as is the case in several universities around the world. The university must be open to everyone and especially to its socioeconomic environment. However, this openness must be well thought out and measured. The goal is to have a win-win relationship between universities and companies. Academic values such as integrity, objectivity, and academic freedom must remain sacred and untouchable.

Conclusion
The current governance model of Moroccan universities brings together characteristics of academic, bureaucratic, political, and stakeholder governance. Such a situation explains the low contribution of Moroccan universities to the production of knowledge, especially in the fields of science and technology, patents, and their place in international rankings. However, with the funding constraints of the sector, especially given the increasing massification and the challenge of integrating young garaduates into the labor market, this model is increasingly being questioned. Now there is more interest in spreading the entrepreneurial culture to encourage business creation and self-employment, entrepreneurship, innovation, student entrepreneurship, and the entrepreneurial university approach.
Thus, we can say that we are witnessing a growing awareness of the entrepreneurial model as a possible alternative for adoption by the Moroccan university to remedy its dysfunctions. However, implementing these provisions relating to the entrepreneurial university will still take a long time and will require a lot of effort to raise awareness and change the culture in the face of the resistance of certain academic actors.
Here, it should be noted that Morocco is about to adopt a new reform, the bachelor's system, which will enable students to complete the bachelor's degree and which aims at strengthening the relations between the socioeconomic fabric and the Moroccan universities to improve graduates' job prospects.