Syntactic Realisations of Linking Adverbials in EFL Learner Writing: A Cross Proficiency Corpus Analysis

Abstract

This study investigates the syntactic realisations of linking adverbials in EFL learner writing across three proficiency levels (B1, B2, and C1). Drawing on a learner corpus of essays, linking adverbials were analysed according to the five structural categories proposed by Biber et al. (2021): single adverbs, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, finite clauses, and non-finite clauses. The study employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative corpus analysis, including normalised frequencies and mixed-effects models, with qualitative concordance analysis.

The findings revealed that all five structural categories occurred across the proficiency levels, although finite and non-finite clauses were comparatively rare. Single adverbs were the most frequently used category, followed by prepositional phrases, whereas adverb phrases occurred less frequently. Significant differences were identified across proficiency levels, particularly between B1 learners and the higher-level groups. Advanced learners (C1) demonstrated greater use of noun phrase structures and more formal written-style linking adverbials, while lower-level learners relied more heavily on personal pronouns and spoken-style linkers such as now and first of all.

Overall, the findings suggest that increasing proficiency is associated with greater structural sophistication and a gradual shift from spoken-like patterns toward more formal written-like use of linking adverbials.